CLIMATE-INDUCED MIGRATION IN COASTAL AREAS OF NIGERIA AND ITS ECONOMIC EFFECTS ON COASTAL ECOSYSTEM LIVELIHOODS
Résumé
Migration is an aged long phenomenon, which has been increasingly drawing attention from several disciplines, including economics. The effects of climate change on migration have also been increasingly gaining attention among researchers as well as those in charge of policy design and implementation in the past two decades. This paper presents a review on the effects of climate change on Migration flows in coastal areas of Nigeria. More specifically, the paper identifies coastal vulnerabilities in the face of climate change and the impact of climate change on future coastal livelihood opportunities. It also identifies the differences in age, gender and other patterns in the migratory movements. The paper notes that further rising sea level in future could make urban-urban migration dominate the prevailing rural-urban mobility in Nigeria, if measures are not taken to boost coastal adaptation and this will put more pressure on urban infrastructure and assets. The paper therefore, recommends the need for investment in coastal adaptation, since the future benefits from adaptation (net benefits) outweighs the cost of non- adaptation.
Références
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Adepoju, A. (2005). Migration in West Africa A paper prepared for the Policy Analysis and Research Programme. In A paper prepared for the Policy Analysis and Research Programme of the Global Commission on International Migration.
Adewale, J. G. (2017). Socio-Economic Factors Associated with Urban- Rural Migration in Nigeria : A Case Study of Oyo State , Nigeria. Journal of Human Ecology, 17(1), 13–16. https://doi.org/10.1080/09709274.2005.11905752
Afolayan, A. A. (1985). Is there a Step-wise Migration in Nigeria ?: A Case Study of the
Migrational Histories of Migrants in Lagos. GeoJournal, 11(2), 183–193.
Agboola, J. I., & Odunuga, S. (2015). Coastal Watershed Ecosystem Services Management in West Africa: Case of Ghana and Nigeria. (L. Chicharo, F. Müller, & N. Fohrer, Eds.).
Ajaero, C. K., & Onokala, P. C. (2013). The Effects of Rural-Urban Migration on Rural
Communities of Southeastern Nigeria. International Journal of Population Research, 1–10. Akpodiogaga-a, P., & Odjugo, O. (2017). General Overview of Climate Change Impacts in
Nigeria. Journal of Human Ecology, 29(1), 47–55. https://doi.org/10.1080/09709274.2010.11906248
Amadi, L., & Ogonor, C. U. Mac. (2015). Climate change , environmental security and displacement in Nigeria : Experience from the Niger Delta Flood Disaster , 2012. African Journal of Environmental Science and Technology, 9, 53–64. https://doi.org/10.5897/AJEST2014.1749
Amangabara, T. G., & Obenade, M. (2015). Flood Vulnerability Assessment of Niger Delta States Relative to 2012 Flood Flood Vulnerability Assessment of Niger Delta States Relative to 2012 Flood Disaster in Nigeria. American Journal of Environmental Protection, 3(3), 76–83. https://doi.org/10.12691/env-3-3-3
Barrios, S., Bertinelli, L., & Strobl, E. (2006). Climatic change and rural-urban migration: The case of sub-Saharan Africa. Journal of Urban Economics, 60(3), 357–371. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jue.2006.04.005
Busby, J. W., Smith, T. G., & Krishnan, N. (2014). Climate security vulnerability in Africa mapping 3 . 0. Political Geography, 43, 51–67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polgeo.2014.10.005
Cai, R., Feng, S., Oppenheimer, M., & Pytlikova, M. (2016). Climate variability and international migration : The importance of the agricultural linkage. Journal of Environmental Economics and Management, 79, 135–151. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeem.2016.06.005
Cattaneo, C., & Peri, G. (2016). The migration response to increasing temperatures. Journal of Development Economics, 122, 127–146. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdeveco.2016.05.004 Cozannet, G. Le, Garcin, M., Yates, M., Idier, D., & Meyssignac, B. (2014). Earth-Science
Reviews Approaches to evaluate the recent impacts of sea-level rise on shoreline changes.
Earth Science Reviews, 138, 47–60. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2014.08.005
Dada, O. A., Li, G., Qiao, L., Ding, D., Ma, Y., & Xu, J. (2016). Seasonal shoreline behaviours along the arcuate Niger Delta coast : Complex interaction between fluvial and marine processes Continental Shelf Research Seasonal shoreline behaviours along the arcuate Niger Delta coast : Complex interaction between fl uvia. Continental Shelf Research Journal, 122, 51–67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.csr.2016.03.002
Davis, K. F., Bhattachan, A., D’Odorico, P., & Suweis, S. (2018). A universal model for predicting human migration under climate change: Examining future sea level rise in Bangladesh. Environmental Research Letters, 13.
Dillon, A., Mueller, V., & Salau, S. (2011). Migratory responses to agricultural risk in nothern Nigeria. American Journal of Agricultural Economics, 93(4), 1048–1061. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajae/aar033
Diop, S., & Scheren, P. A. (2016). Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science Sustainable oceans and coasts: Lessons learnt from Eastern and Western Africa. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science, 183, 327–330. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecss.2016.03.032
Elias, P., & Omojola, A. (2015). Case study : The challenges of climate change for Lagos , Nigeria. Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability, 13, 74–78. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cosust.2015.02.008
Etuonovbe, A. K. (2007). Coastal Settlement and Climate Changes – The Effects of Climatic Change / Sea Level Rise on the People of Awoye in.
Fox, S., Bloch, R., & Monroy, J. (2017). Understanding the dynamics of Nigeria’s urban transition: A refutation of the ‘stalled urbanisation’ hypothesis. Urban Studies, 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1177/0042098017712688
Hanjra, M. A., & Qureshi, M. E. (2010). Global water crisis and future food security in an era of climate change. Food Policy, 35(5), 365–377. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2010.05.006 Hauer, M. E., Evans, J. M., & Mishra, D. R. (2016). Millions projected to be at risk from sea- level rise in the continental United States. Nature Climate Change, 1–8.
https://doi.org/10.1038/NCLIMATE2961
International Organization for Migration. (2018). World migration report 2018. Geneva, Switzerland.
IOM. (2009). Migration in Nigeria: A country profile 2009.
IOM. (2015). National Migration Policy 2015. Federal Republic of Nigeria. IOM. (2016). Migration in Nigeria: A country profile 2014.
Israel, A. O. (2017). Nature, the built environment and perennial fl ooding in Lagos, Nigeria: The 2012 flood as a case study. Urban Climate, 21, 218–231. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.uclim.2017.06.009
Lal, R. (2013). Food security in a changing climate. Ecohydrology & Hydrobiology, 13(1), 8–21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecohyd.2013.03.006
Lawal, A. S., & Okeowo, T. A. (2014). Effects of Rural Urban Migration on Labour Supply in Cocoa Production in Ondo East Local Government Area of Ondo State. International Letters of Natural Sciences, 18, 1–11. https://doi.org/10.18052/www.scipress.com/ILNS.18.1
Lucas, R. E. B. (2013). African Migration. In R. C. Barry & P. W. Miller (Eds.), The Handbook on the Economics of International Migration. Elsevier.
Maanen, B. Van, Nicholls, R. J., French, J. R., Barkwith, A., Bonaldo, D., Burningham, H., … Walkden, M. J. A. (2015). Geomorphology Simulating mesoscale coastal evolution for decadal coastal management: A new framework integrating multiple, complementary modelling approaches. Geomorphology, 256, 68–80. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2015.10.026
Marchiori, L., Schumacher, & Schumacher, I. (2012). The impact of weather anomalies on migration in sub-Saharan Africa. Journal of Environmental Economics and Management, 63, 355–374. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeem.2012.02.001
Mayer, B. (2011). Migration as a sustainable adaptation strategy. In Climate Adaptation Research and Understanding through the Social Sciences: Climate Vulnerability and Adaptation: Marginal Peoples and Environments (pp. 1–14).
Mberu, B. U. (2005). Who moves and who stays? Rural out-migration in Nigeria. Journal of
Population Research, 22(2), 141–161.
Mgbakor, N. M., Uzendu, O. P., & Usifo, J. I. (2014). Effects Of Rural – Urban Migration By Youths On Agricultural Labour In Aniocha South Local Government Area of Delta State , Nigeria . Journal of Research in Agriculture and Animal Science, 2(6), 14–22.
Mmom, P. C., & Chukwu-Okeah, G. O. (2011). Factors and Processes of Coastal Zone Development in Nigeria : A Review Factors and Processes of Coastal Zone Development in Nigeria : A Review. Research Journal of Environmental and Earth Sciences, 3(6), 625–632. Moustakas, A., & Karakassis, I. (2009). A geographic analysis of the published aquatic biodiversity research in relation to the ecological footprint of the country where the
work was done. Stochastic Environmental Research and Risk Assessment, 23(6), 737- 748.
Musa, Z. N., Popescu, I., & Mynett, A. (2014). The Niger Delta ’ s vulnerability to river floods due to sea level rise. Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences, 14, 3317–3329. https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-14-3317-2014
Neumann, B., Vafeidis, A. T., Zimmermann, J., & Nicholls, R. J. (2015). Future Coastal Population Growth and Exposure to Sea-Level Rise and Coastal Flooding - A Global Assessment. PLoS ONE, 10(3), 1–34. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0118571
Njock, J.-C., & Westlund, L. (2010). Migration , resource management and global change : Experiences from fishing communities in West and Central Africa. Marine Policy, 34(4), 752–760. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2010.01.020
Ofuoku, A. U., & Chukwuji, christopher O. (2012). The impact of rural-urban migration on plantation agriculture in the niger delta region, nigeria albert ukaro ofuoku. Journal of Rural Social Sciences, 27(1), 137–151.
Ogunmakinde, O. E., & Oladokun, S. D. (2015). Rural-Urban Migration in South Western Nigeria : A menace to National Rural-Urban Migration in South Western Nigeria : A menace to National Development. Civil and Environmental Research, 7(5), 42–47.
Ojile, M. O., Koulibaly, C. T., & Ibe, C. (2017). Comparative analysis of vulnerabilities of selected coastal communities and populations to climate change impacts and adaptation strategies in Nigeria and Senegal. In 37th Annual Conference of the International Association for Impact Assessment (pp. 4–7). Montréal, Canada.
Popoola, K. O., & Oladehinde, G. J. (2017). Gender Analysis of Cross-border Migration in Rural Border Communities of Ipokia Local Government Area , Ogun. Economic and Environmental Studies, 17(2), 165–184.
Sabine, L. P., Michèle, B. B., & Imboden, D. (2008). Exploring the link between climate change and migration. Climatic Change, 91, 375–393. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-008-9416-y
Stephenson, J., Newman, K., & Mayhew, S. (2010). Thesis Population dynamics and climate change : what are the links ? Journal of Public Health, 32(2), 150–156. https://doi.org/10.1093/pubmed/fdq038
Teklegiorgis, L., Abate, G., & Gandorfer, M. (2017). Impact of climate change on farms in smallholder farming systems : Yield impacts , economic implications and distributional effects. Agricultural Systems, 152, 58–66. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agsy.2016.12.006
Tijani, M. N., Obayelu, A. E., Sobowale, A., & Olatunji, A. S. (2015). Welfare analysis of smallholder farmers by irrigation systems and factors affecting their production outputs in Nigeria. Sustainability of Water Quality and Ecology, 3–4(2014), 90–100. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.swaqe.2014.12.002
United Nations. (2018). Economic development in Africa Report 2018: Migration for structural transformation. New York and Geneva.
Wong, P. P., Losada, I. J., Gattuso, J.-P., Hinkel, J., Khattabi, A., McInnes, K. L., … Sallenger,
A. (2014). Coastal systems and low-lying areas. In K. J. M. Field, C.B., V.R. Barros, D.J. Dokken, A. N. L. M.D. Mastrandrea, T.E. Bilir, M. Chatterjee, K.L. Ebi, Y.O. Estrada, R.C. Genova, B. Girma, E.S. Kissel, & and L. L. W. S. MacCracken, P.R. Mastrandrea (Eds.), Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Part A: Global and Sectoral Aspects. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (pp. 361–409). NY, USA: Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA.
World Meteorological Organization. (2017). WMO Statement on the State of the Global Climate in 2017. Geneva, Switzerland.
Adepoju, A. (2005). Migration in West Africa A paper prepared for the Policy Analysis and Research Programme. In A paper prepared for the Policy Analysis and Research Programme of the Global Commission on International Migration.
Adewale, J. G. (2017). Socio-Economic Factors Associated with Urban- Rural Migration in Nigeria : A Case Study of Oyo State , Nigeria. Journal of Human Ecology, 17(1), 13–16. https://doi.org/10.1080/09709274.2005.11905752
Afolayan, A. A. (1985). Is there a Step-wise Migration in Nigeria ?: A Case Study of the
Migrational Histories of Migrants in Lagos. GeoJournal, 11(2), 183–193.
Agboola, J. I., & Odunuga, S. (2015). Coastal Watershed Ecosystem Services Management in West Africa: Case of Ghana and Nigeria. (L. Chicharo, F. Müller, & N. Fohrer, Eds.).
Ajaero, C. K., & Onokala, P. C. (2013). The Effects of Rural-Urban Migration on Rural
Communities of Southeastern Nigeria. International Journal of Population Research, 1–10. Akpodiogaga-a, P., & Odjugo, O. (2017). General Overview of Climate Change Impacts in
Nigeria. Journal of Human Ecology, 29(1), 47–55. https://doi.org/10.1080/09709274.2010.11906248
Amadi, L., & Ogonor, C. U. Mac. (2015). Climate change , environmental security and displacement in Nigeria : Experience from the Niger Delta Flood Disaster , 2012. African Journal of Environmental Science and Technology, 9, 53–64. https://doi.org/10.5897/AJEST2014.1749
Amangabara, T. G., & Obenade, M. (2015). Flood Vulnerability Assessment of Niger Delta States Relative to 2012 Flood Flood Vulnerability Assessment of Niger Delta States Relative to 2012 Flood Disaster in Nigeria. American Journal of Environmental Protection, 3(3), 76–83. https://doi.org/10.12691/env-3-3-3
Barrios, S., Bertinelli, L., & Strobl, E. (2006). Climatic change and rural-urban migration: The case of sub-Saharan Africa. Journal of Urban Economics, 60(3), 357–371. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jue.2006.04.005
Busby, J. W., Smith, T. G., & Krishnan, N. (2014). Climate security vulnerability in Africa mapping 3 . 0. Political Geography, 43, 51–67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polgeo.2014.10.005
Cai, R., Feng, S., Oppenheimer, M., & Pytlikova, M. (2016). Climate variability and international migration : The importance of the agricultural linkage. Journal of Environmental Economics and Management, 79, 135–151. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeem.2016.06.005
Cattaneo, C., & Peri, G. (2016). The migration response to increasing temperatures. Journal of Development Economics, 122, 127–146. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdeveco.2016.05.004 Cozannet, G. Le, Garcin, M., Yates, M., Idier, D., & Meyssignac, B. (2014). Earth-Science
Reviews Approaches to evaluate the recent impacts of sea-level rise on shoreline changes.
Earth Science Reviews, 138, 47–60. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2014.08.005
Dada, O. A., Li, G., Qiao, L., Ding, D., Ma, Y., & Xu, J. (2016). Seasonal shoreline behaviours along the arcuate Niger Delta coast : Complex interaction between fluvial and marine processes Continental Shelf Research Seasonal shoreline behaviours along the arcuate Niger Delta coast : Complex interaction between fl uvia. Continental Shelf Research Journal, 122, 51–67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.csr.2016.03.002
Davis, K. F., Bhattachan, A., D’Odorico, P., & Suweis, S. (2018). A universal model for predicting human migration under climate change: Examining future sea level rise in Bangladesh. Environmental Research Letters, 13.
Dillon, A., Mueller, V., & Salau, S. (2011). Migratory responses to agricultural risk in nothern Nigeria. American Journal of Agricultural Economics, 93(4), 1048–1061. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajae/aar033
Diop, S., & Scheren, P. A. (2016). Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science Sustainable oceans and coasts: Lessons learnt from Eastern and Western Africa. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science, 183, 327–330. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecss.2016.03.032
Elias, P., & Omojola, A. (2015). Case study : The challenges of climate change for Lagos , Nigeria. Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability, 13, 74–78. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cosust.2015.02.008
Etuonovbe, A. K. (2007). Coastal Settlement and Climate Changes – The Effects of Climatic Change / Sea Level Rise on the People of Awoye in.
Fox, S., Bloch, R., & Monroy, J. (2017). Understanding the dynamics of Nigeria’s urban transition: A refutation of the ‘stalled urbanisation’ hypothesis. Urban Studies, 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1177/0042098017712688
Hanjra, M. A., & Qureshi, M. E. (2010). Global water crisis and future food security in an era of climate change. Food Policy, 35(5), 365–377. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2010.05.006 Hauer, M. E., Evans, J. M., & Mishra, D. R. (2016). Millions projected to be at risk from sea- level rise in the continental United States. Nature Climate Change, 1–8.
https://doi.org/10.1038/NCLIMATE2961
International Organization for Migration. (2018). World migration report 2018. Geneva, Switzerland.
IOM. (2009). Migration in Nigeria: A country profile 2009.
IOM. (2015). National Migration Policy 2015. Federal Republic of Nigeria. IOM. (2016). Migration in Nigeria: A country profile 2014.
Israel, A. O. (2017). Nature, the built environment and perennial fl ooding in Lagos, Nigeria: The 2012 flood as a case study. Urban Climate, 21, 218–231. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.uclim.2017.06.009
Lal, R. (2013). Food security in a changing climate. Ecohydrology & Hydrobiology, 13(1), 8–21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecohyd.2013.03.006
Lawal, A. S., & Okeowo, T. A. (2014). Effects of Rural Urban Migration on Labour Supply in Cocoa Production in Ondo East Local Government Area of Ondo State. International Letters of Natural Sciences, 18, 1–11. https://doi.org/10.18052/www.scipress.com/ILNS.18.1
Lucas, R. E. B. (2013). African Migration. In R. C. Barry & P. W. Miller (Eds.), The Handbook on the Economics of International Migration. Elsevier.
Maanen, B. Van, Nicholls, R. J., French, J. R., Barkwith, A., Bonaldo, D., Burningham, H., … Walkden, M. J. A. (2015). Geomorphology Simulating mesoscale coastal evolution for decadal coastal management: A new framework integrating multiple, complementary modelling approaches. Geomorphology, 256, 68–80. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2015.10.026
Marchiori, L., Schumacher, & Schumacher, I. (2012). The impact of weather anomalies on migration in sub-Saharan Africa. Journal of Environmental Economics and Management, 63, 355–374. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeem.2012.02.001
Mayer, B. (2011). Migration as a sustainable adaptation strategy. In Climate Adaptation Research and Understanding through the Social Sciences: Climate Vulnerability and Adaptation: Marginal Peoples and Environments (pp. 1–14).
Mberu, B. U. (2005). Who moves and who stays? Rural out-migration in Nigeria. Journal of
Population Research, 22(2), 141–161.
Mgbakor, N. M., Uzendu, O. P., & Usifo, J. I. (2014). Effects Of Rural – Urban Migration By Youths On Agricultural Labour In Aniocha South Local Government Area of Delta State , Nigeria . Journal of Research in Agriculture and Animal Science, 2(6), 14–22.
Mmom, P. C., & Chukwu-Okeah, G. O. (2011). Factors and Processes of Coastal Zone Development in Nigeria : A Review Factors and Processes of Coastal Zone Development in Nigeria : A Review. Research Journal of Environmental and Earth Sciences, 3(6), 625–632. Moustakas, A., & Karakassis, I. (2009). A geographic analysis of the published aquatic biodiversity research in relation to the ecological footprint of the country where the
work was done. Stochastic Environmental Research and Risk Assessment, 23(6), 737- 748.
Musa, Z. N., Popescu, I., & Mynett, A. (2014). The Niger Delta ’ s vulnerability to river floods due to sea level rise. Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences, 14, 3317–3329. https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-14-3317-2014
Neumann, B., Vafeidis, A. T., Zimmermann, J., & Nicholls, R. J. (2015). Future Coastal Population Growth and Exposure to Sea-Level Rise and Coastal Flooding - A Global Assessment. PLoS ONE, 10(3), 1–34. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0118571
Njock, J.-C., & Westlund, L. (2010). Migration , resource management and global change : Experiences from fishing communities in West and Central Africa. Marine Policy, 34(4), 752–760. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2010.01.020
Ofuoku, A. U., & Chukwuji, christopher O. (2012). The impact of rural-urban migration on plantation agriculture in the niger delta region, nigeria albert ukaro ofuoku. Journal of Rural Social Sciences, 27(1), 137–151.
Ogunmakinde, O. E., & Oladokun, S. D. (2015). Rural-Urban Migration in South Western Nigeria : A menace to National Rural-Urban Migration in South Western Nigeria : A menace to National Development. Civil and Environmental Research, 7(5), 42–47.
Ojile, M. O., Koulibaly, C. T., & Ibe, C. (2017). Comparative analysis of vulnerabilities of selected coastal communities and populations to climate change impacts and adaptation strategies in Nigeria and Senegal. In 37th Annual Conference of the International Association for Impact Assessment (pp. 4–7). Montréal, Canada.
Popoola, K. O., & Oladehinde, G. J. (2017). Gender Analysis of Cross-border Migration in Rural Border Communities of Ipokia Local Government Area , Ogun. Economic and Environmental Studies, 17(2), 165–184.
Sabine, L. P., Michèle, B. B., & Imboden, D. (2008). Exploring the link between climate change and migration. Climatic Change, 91, 375–393. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-008-9416-y
Stephenson, J., Newman, K., & Mayhew, S. (2010). Thesis Population dynamics and climate change : what are the links ? Journal of Public Health, 32(2), 150–156. https://doi.org/10.1093/pubmed/fdq038
Teklegiorgis, L., Abate, G., & Gandorfer, M. (2017). Impact of climate change on farms in smallholder farming systems : Yield impacts , economic implications and distributional effects. Agricultural Systems, 152, 58–66. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agsy.2016.12.006
Tijani, M. N., Obayelu, A. E., Sobowale, A., & Olatunji, A. S. (2015). Welfare analysis of smallholder farmers by irrigation systems and factors affecting their production outputs in Nigeria. Sustainability of Water Quality and Ecology, 3–4(2014), 90–100. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.swaqe.2014.12.002
United Nations. (2018). Economic development in Africa Report 2018: Migration for structural transformation. New York and Geneva.
Wong, P. P., Losada, I. J., Gattuso, J.-P., Hinkel, J., Khattabi, A., McInnes, K. L., … Sallenger,
A. (2014). Coastal systems and low-lying areas. In K. J. M. Field, C.B., V.R. Barros, D.J. Dokken, A. N. L. M.D. Mastrandrea, T.E. Bilir, M. Chatterjee, K.L. Ebi, Y.O. Estrada, R.C. Genova, B. Girma, E.S. Kissel, & and L. L. W. S. MacCracken, P.R. Mastrandrea (Eds.), Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Part A: Global and Sectoral Aspects. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (pp. 361–409). NY, USA: Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA.
World Meteorological Organization. (2017). WMO Statement on the State of the Global Climate in 2017. Geneva, Switzerland.
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