IMPACT OF HEALTH EXPENDITURE ON CHILD MORTALITY RATE IN NIGERIA, 1980-2015
Resumo
This study is undertaken to investigate the impact of health expenditure on child mortality rate in Nigeria within the period of 1980-2015. The study made use of three explanatory variables: Public health expenditure, private health expenditure and per capital income. Autoregressive Distributed Lagged (ARDL) model was used to expose the long-run relationship that exists among the variables. The variables were first subjected to unit root test, co-integration test, error correction mechanism. Since the variables were not stationary at level, ARDL Bound Co- integration test was used to determine the long run relationship among the variables and they were found to be co-integrated and the ECM was statistically significant indicating short run adjustment to equilibrium in the long run. The long run and ECM results obtained revealed that all the variables used have negative impacts on infant mortality rate and also statistically significant. Thus, in reducing infant mortality rate in Nigeria, there is need for government and private stakeholders to invest adequately in health sector in order to ensure health service that is accessible and affordable to the teeming population of the country.
Referências
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Agenor, P. R. (2007). Health and Infrastructure in a model of Endogenous Growth. Journal of Macroeconomics (28), 768-774.
Ajayi, S. I. (2002). INSTITUTIONS: The Missing Link in the Growth Process? Being a published presidential Address delivered at the 43rd Annual Conference of NES, Lagos, 7-8, August.
Aluko, O. & Aluko, W. O. (2017). Income Disparity and Family Health Outcome in the FCT. Implication for Economic Growth in Nigeria (1985-2015). International Journal of Management Science and Business 6 (2), 1-15.
Anand, S. & Ravallion, M. (1993). Human development in poor countries: On the role of private incomes and public services. Journal of Economic Perspective, 7(1):133-150.
Andrew, C. (1995). Health Sector Reform: Key Issues in Less Developed Countries” Journal of International Development. 1(3), 329 -347.
Anyanwu, J. C. & Erhijakpor, A. O. E. (2007). Health Expenditures and Health Outcome Africa.” African Development Bank Economic Research Working Paper. No 91 (December 2007).
Arah, O. A., Klazinga, N. S., Delnoij, D. M. J., Ten, A., A. H. A. & Custers, T. (2003), “Conceptual frameworks for health systems Performance: A Quest for Effectiveness, Quality and Improvement.” International Journal for Quality in Health, 15(5), 377–398. Asekunowo, V. O. (2010), “Funded contributory Pension Scheme, Financial Deepening and Economic Growth: What Does the Evidence Say So Far about the Nigeria Economy?”
CBN Bullion. .34( 1), 35-46.
Ataguba, J. E.O. & Akazili, J. (2010) “Healthcare financing in South Africa: moving towards universal coverage” Continue Medical Education 28(2), 74 -78.
Bakare, A.S. & Olubokun, S. (2011) “Healthcare Expenditure and Economic Growth in Nigeria: An Empirical Study” Journal of Emerging Trends in Economics and Management Sciences (JETEMS), 2(2), 83-87.
Baldacci, E. (2004), “Social Spending, Human Capital, and Growth in Developing Countries: Implications for Achieving the MDGs”, IMF Working Paper, no. wp/04/217, Washington
DC Better Results in Education and Healthcare?”, IMF, Washington D.C, Working paper
99/21.
Bidani, B. & Martins, R. (1997) “Decomposing social indicators using distributional data.”
Journal of Econometrics. 77(1999), 125-139.
Bingjie, H. & Ronald U. M. (2010) “Public Spending, Governance and Child Health Outcomes: Revisiting the Links” Unedited Discussion Draft Unicef Policy And Practice.
Bokhari, F. A. S., Gai, Y. & Gottret, P. (2006): “Government Health Expenditures and Health Outcomes: Journal of Health Economics 16, 257-273.
Chaabouni, S., & Abednadher, C. (2010). “The determinants of health expenditures Tunisia: An ARDL bounds testing approach”. Journal of Economics and Management Science 84, 105-125.
Chete & Adeoye (2002):“Human Resource Development in Africa”. The Nigerian Economic Society Selected Papers for the 2002 Annual Conference. 79-102.
Faisal, A. & Hohen, C. (2010), “Public Health Sector Expenditure, Health Statue and their role in Development of Pakistan.” Inaugural–Dissertation Presentation.
Feldstein, M. (1967), “Economic analysis for health services efficient”, Oxford University Press.
Oxford, UK.
Filmer, D. & Pritchett, L. (1999), “The impact of public spending on health: Does money matter?” Social Science and Medicine 49, 1309-1323.
Filmer, D. & Pritchett L. (1997), “Child Mortality and Public Spending on Health: How Much Does Money Matter?”, World Bank Policy Research Working Paper No. 1864 (Washington: World Bank).
Gani, A. (2009). Health care financing and health outcomes in Pacific Island countries, Health Policy and Planning, 24 (1), 72-81.
Garba, P. K. (2012), “The Impossibility of Sound Economic Outcomes with a sound Management and Leadership”: Being Inaugural Lecture (2011/2012), University of Ibadan.
Greiner, A. (2005). “Fiscal policy in an Endogenous Growth Model with Public capital and pollution” Japanese Economic Review. Vol. 56, 67-84.
Grossman, M. (1972). “On the concept of Health Capital and the Demand for Health”. Journal of Political Economics. 80(2), 223-255. The University of Chicago Press.
Gupta, S., Hamid, D. & Erwin, T.. (2002). “Corruption and the provision of healthcare and education services.” In George Abed and Sanjeev Gupta, Eds., Governance, Corruption and Economic Performance. Washington, D.C.: IMF.
Gupta, S., Verhoeven, M. & Tiogson, E. (2001), “Public Spending on Healthcare and the Poor”, IMF Working Paper, Fiscal Affairs Department.
Gupta, S., Verhoeven, M. & Tiongson, E. (1999). “Does Higher Government Spending Buy Better Results in Education and Healthcare?”, IMF, Washington D.C, Working paper 99/21. Hanmer, L., Lensink, R. & White, H. (2014). "Infant and Child Mortality in Developing
Countries: Analysing the Data for Robust Determinants." Journal of Development Studies, 40(1), 101-108.
Houweling, T. A. J., Kunst, A. E., Looman, C. W. N. & Mackenbach, J. P. (2005), Determinants of under-5 Mortality among the Poor and Rich: A cross mational Analysis of 43 Developing countries. International Journal of Epidemilogy 34(6), 1257-1265.
Imoughele, L. E. & Ismaila, M. (2013). “Determinants of Public Healthcare Expenditure in Nigeria: An Error Correction Mechanism Approach” International Journal of Business and Social Science 4(13), 220-233.
Issa, H. & Quattara, B. (2005). “The Effect of Private and Public Health Expenditures on Infant Mortality.” Does the level of development matters? Paper presented in University of Damascus (Syria).
Kaufman, D., Kraay, A., & Mastruzzi, M., (2004). “Governance matters III: governance indicators for 1996, 1998, 2000, and 2002.” World Bank Economic Review, 18, 253–287,
2004.
Kaufmann, D. & S. J. Wei. (1999). “Does “Grease Money” Speed Up the Wheels of Commerce?” NBER Working Papers 7093. National Bureau of Economic Research, Inc.
Kaufmann, D., Aart , K., & Massimo, M. (2013). “The Worldwide Governance Indicators, 2013 Update” www.govindicators.org
Kim, K., & Moody, P.M. (1992). “More Resources, Better Health? A Cross-National Perspective,” Social Science and Medicine, (34), 837–42.
Maureen, L. (2006). “Governance and Corruption in Public Healthcare Systems” Center for Global Development Working Paper. Number 78 January 2006.
Mordi, N. O. C., Abwaku, E. and Banji, S. A. (2010). ”The Changing Structure of the Nigerian Economy” Published by Research Department, CBN, 2010. 297.
Musgrave, P. (1996). “Public and Private Roles in Health,” Technical Report 339, World Bank Washington, D.C.
Narayan, P.K. (2004). “Reformulating Critical Values for the Bound F-Statistics Approach to Co-integration: An Application to the Econometrics.
North, D. C. (1991). Institutions, The Journal of Economic Perspectives, 5(1), 97-112
Obansa, S. A. J. (2011). “Economics of Onchocerciasis.” published by Quill Academy Publisher Abuja, 1-8.
Odusola, A. E. (1998), “Rekindling Investment and Economic Development in Nigeria”. NES Selected Papers for the 1998 Annual Conference. 1998.
Olaniyan, O., Onisanwa, I. D. and Oyinlola, A. (2013). “Healthcare Expenditures and GDP in Sub-Saharan African Countries: Evidence from Panel Data”. Paper submitted for presentation at the 2013 Centre for the Study of African Economies Conference on Economic Development in Africa to be held at St Catherine's College, Oxford, 17-19.
Olaniyi, O. O. & Adams, A. A. (2002). “Public Expenditures and Human Development in Nigeria. Human Resource Development in Africa: Annual Conference papers, NES U. I (Ibadan). 157-198.
Olayinka, A. L., & Olanrewaju O. (2013). “Health Expenditure and Health Status in Northern and Southern Nigeria: A Comparative Analysis Using National Health Account Framework. African Journal of Health Economics AJHE-2013-0003, 1-15.
Oluwatoyin, M. A., Adegboye, B. F. and Fasina F. F. (2012). “Public Health Expenditure and Health Outcomes in Nigeria.” Department of Economics & Development Studies, College of Business & Social Sciences,Covenant University,Ota-Nigeria, 11-12.
Patrpaticio, M., Edward, F., Rifat, A. & Sevil, K. S. (2008). “Public Spending in Russia for Healthcare: Issues and Options” Europe and Central Asia Region (ECA), , Russia Country Management Unit, The World Bank Annual Presentation Papers.
Pesaran, M. H., Shin, Y. and Smith, R. (2001). “Bounds Testing Approaches to the Analysis of Level Relationships”, Journal of Applied Econometrics (16), 289-326.
Rajkumar, A. S. & Vinaya, S. (2008). “Public spending and outcomes: Does governance matter?” Journal of Development Economics (86), 96-111.
Remman, H. B., Bassey, J. U. & Edu, B. E. (2011). Health care Expenditure in Nigeria: Does the level of Government speding really matter? SSRN : http: (SSM.com abstract=1554027.
Richardson, K. E., Innocent, A. I. & Okereke, O. S. (2015). Relationship between household income and child mortality in Nigeria. America Journal of life science. 2,(6), 1-12. ”.
Riman, H. B. (2012). Healthcare Financing and Health outcomes in Nigeria: A State Level Study using Multivariate Analysis. International Journal of Humanities and Social Science. 2(15), 296-305.
Schultz, T. P. (1993). “Mortality Decline in the Low-Income World: Causes and Consequences,”
Economic Growth Center Discussion Paper No. 681 (New Haven: Yale University).
Solow, R. M. (1956). “A Contribution to the Theory of Economics Growth”, Quarterly Journal of Economics: LXX.
Tae, K. K. & Shannon R. L. (2013). “Government Health Expenditure & Public Health Outcomes” A comparative study among 17 countries and implication for Health Care Reform. American Internation Journal of Contemporary Research. Vol (3).
UNDP (2013). “List of Countries by Human Development Index” United Nation Development Project. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_Human_Development_Index
UNECA (2012). “Economic Transformation for Africa’s Development”, United Nations, Economic Commission for Africa, Macroeconomic policy Division, C-10 Meeting April. Washington D, C. University Press: New York, NY.
World Health Organisation. (2005). World Development Report 2005: Investing in Health. Oxford University Press: New York, NY. WHO (2005), World Development Report 1993: Investing in Health. Oxford.
World Health Organization (2010). “Measuring Performance of Health Sector in Nigeria.” World Health Report. Geneva.
Yaqub, J., Ojapinwa T.V. (2012). Public Health Expenditure and Health Outcome In, Nigeria: The Impact Of Governance” European Scientific Journal 8(13), 189-201 eujournal.org/index.php/esj/article/viewFile/206/248
Agenor, P. R. (2007). Health and Infrastructure in a model of Endogenous Growth. Journal of Macroeconomics (28), 768-774.
Ajayi, S. I. (2002). INSTITUTIONS: The Missing Link in the Growth Process? Being a published presidential Address delivered at the 43rd Annual Conference of NES, Lagos, 7-8, August.
Aluko, O. & Aluko, W. O. (2017). Income Disparity and Family Health Outcome in the FCT. Implication for Economic Growth in Nigeria (1985-2015). International Journal of Management Science and Business 6 (2), 1-15.
Anand, S. & Ravallion, M. (1993). Human development in poor countries: On the role of private incomes and public services. Journal of Economic Perspective, 7(1):133-150.
Andrew, C. (1995). Health Sector Reform: Key Issues in Less Developed Countries” Journal of International Development. 1(3), 329 -347.
Anyanwu, J. C. & Erhijakpor, A. O. E. (2007). Health Expenditures and Health Outcome Africa.” African Development Bank Economic Research Working Paper. No 91 (December 2007).
Arah, O. A., Klazinga, N. S., Delnoij, D. M. J., Ten, A., A. H. A. & Custers, T. (2003), “Conceptual frameworks for health systems Performance: A Quest for Effectiveness, Quality and Improvement.” International Journal for Quality in Health, 15(5), 377–398. Asekunowo, V. O. (2010), “Funded contributory Pension Scheme, Financial Deepening and Economic Growth: What Does the Evidence Say So Far about the Nigeria Economy?”
CBN Bullion. .34( 1), 35-46.
Ataguba, J. E.O. & Akazili, J. (2010) “Healthcare financing in South Africa: moving towards universal coverage” Continue Medical Education 28(2), 74 -78.
Bakare, A.S. & Olubokun, S. (2011) “Healthcare Expenditure and Economic Growth in Nigeria: An Empirical Study” Journal of Emerging Trends in Economics and Management Sciences (JETEMS), 2(2), 83-87.
Baldacci, E. (2004), “Social Spending, Human Capital, and Growth in Developing Countries: Implications for Achieving the MDGs”, IMF Working Paper, no. wp/04/217, Washington
DC Better Results in Education and Healthcare?”, IMF, Washington D.C, Working paper
99/21.
Bidani, B. & Martins, R. (1997) “Decomposing social indicators using distributional data.”
Journal of Econometrics. 77(1999), 125-139.
Bingjie, H. & Ronald U. M. (2010) “Public Spending, Governance and Child Health Outcomes: Revisiting the Links” Unedited Discussion Draft Unicef Policy And Practice.
Bokhari, F. A. S., Gai, Y. & Gottret, P. (2006): “Government Health Expenditures and Health Outcomes: Journal of Health Economics 16, 257-273.
Chaabouni, S., & Abednadher, C. (2010). “The determinants of health expenditures Tunisia: An ARDL bounds testing approach”. Journal of Economics and Management Science 84, 105-125.
Chete & Adeoye (2002):“Human Resource Development in Africa”. The Nigerian Economic Society Selected Papers for the 2002 Annual Conference. 79-102.
Faisal, A. & Hohen, C. (2010), “Public Health Sector Expenditure, Health Statue and their role in Development of Pakistan.” Inaugural–Dissertation Presentation.
Feldstein, M. (1967), “Economic analysis for health services efficient”, Oxford University Press.
Oxford, UK.
Filmer, D. & Pritchett, L. (1999), “The impact of public spending on health: Does money matter?” Social Science and Medicine 49, 1309-1323.
Filmer, D. & Pritchett L. (1997), “Child Mortality and Public Spending on Health: How Much Does Money Matter?”, World Bank Policy Research Working Paper No. 1864 (Washington: World Bank).
Gani, A. (2009). Health care financing and health outcomes in Pacific Island countries, Health Policy and Planning, 24 (1), 72-81.
Garba, P. K. (2012), “The Impossibility of Sound Economic Outcomes with a sound Management and Leadership”: Being Inaugural Lecture (2011/2012), University of Ibadan.
Greiner, A. (2005). “Fiscal policy in an Endogenous Growth Model with Public capital and pollution” Japanese Economic Review. Vol. 56, 67-84.
Grossman, M. (1972). “On the concept of Health Capital and the Demand for Health”. Journal of Political Economics. 80(2), 223-255. The University of Chicago Press.
Gupta, S., Hamid, D. & Erwin, T.. (2002). “Corruption and the provision of healthcare and education services.” In George Abed and Sanjeev Gupta, Eds., Governance, Corruption and Economic Performance. Washington, D.C.: IMF.
Gupta, S., Verhoeven, M. & Tiogson, E. (2001), “Public Spending on Healthcare and the Poor”, IMF Working Paper, Fiscal Affairs Department.
Gupta, S., Verhoeven, M. & Tiongson, E. (1999). “Does Higher Government Spending Buy Better Results in Education and Healthcare?”, IMF, Washington D.C, Working paper 99/21. Hanmer, L., Lensink, R. & White, H. (2014). "Infant and Child Mortality in Developing
Countries: Analysing the Data for Robust Determinants." Journal of Development Studies, 40(1), 101-108.
Houweling, T. A. J., Kunst, A. E., Looman, C. W. N. & Mackenbach, J. P. (2005), Determinants of under-5 Mortality among the Poor and Rich: A cross mational Analysis of 43 Developing countries. International Journal of Epidemilogy 34(6), 1257-1265.
Imoughele, L. E. & Ismaila, M. (2013). “Determinants of Public Healthcare Expenditure in Nigeria: An Error Correction Mechanism Approach” International Journal of Business and Social Science 4(13), 220-233.
Issa, H. & Quattara, B. (2005). “The Effect of Private and Public Health Expenditures on Infant Mortality.” Does the level of development matters? Paper presented in University of Damascus (Syria).
Kaufman, D., Kraay, A., & Mastruzzi, M., (2004). “Governance matters III: governance indicators for 1996, 1998, 2000, and 2002.” World Bank Economic Review, 18, 253–287,
2004.
Kaufmann, D. & S. J. Wei. (1999). “Does “Grease Money” Speed Up the Wheels of Commerce?” NBER Working Papers 7093. National Bureau of Economic Research, Inc.
Kaufmann, D., Aart , K., & Massimo, M. (2013). “The Worldwide Governance Indicators, 2013 Update” www.govindicators.org
Kim, K., & Moody, P.M. (1992). “More Resources, Better Health? A Cross-National Perspective,” Social Science and Medicine, (34), 837–42.
Maureen, L. (2006). “Governance and Corruption in Public Healthcare Systems” Center for Global Development Working Paper. Number 78 January 2006.
Mordi, N. O. C., Abwaku, E. and Banji, S. A. (2010). ”The Changing Structure of the Nigerian Economy” Published by Research Department, CBN, 2010. 297.
Musgrave, P. (1996). “Public and Private Roles in Health,” Technical Report 339, World Bank Washington, D.C.
Narayan, P.K. (2004). “Reformulating Critical Values for the Bound F-Statistics Approach to Co-integration: An Application to the Econometrics.
North, D. C. (1991). Institutions, The Journal of Economic Perspectives, 5(1), 97-112
Obansa, S. A. J. (2011). “Economics of Onchocerciasis.” published by Quill Academy Publisher Abuja, 1-8.
Odusola, A. E. (1998), “Rekindling Investment and Economic Development in Nigeria”. NES Selected Papers for the 1998 Annual Conference. 1998.
Olaniyan, O., Onisanwa, I. D. and Oyinlola, A. (2013). “Healthcare Expenditures and GDP in Sub-Saharan African Countries: Evidence from Panel Data”. Paper submitted for presentation at the 2013 Centre for the Study of African Economies Conference on Economic Development in Africa to be held at St Catherine's College, Oxford, 17-19.
Olaniyi, O. O. & Adams, A. A. (2002). “Public Expenditures and Human Development in Nigeria. Human Resource Development in Africa: Annual Conference papers, NES U. I (Ibadan). 157-198.
Olayinka, A. L., & Olanrewaju O. (2013). “Health Expenditure and Health Status in Northern and Southern Nigeria: A Comparative Analysis Using National Health Account Framework. African Journal of Health Economics AJHE-2013-0003, 1-15.
Oluwatoyin, M. A., Adegboye, B. F. and Fasina F. F. (2012). “Public Health Expenditure and Health Outcomes in Nigeria.” Department of Economics & Development Studies, College of Business & Social Sciences,Covenant University,Ota-Nigeria, 11-12.
Patrpaticio, M., Edward, F., Rifat, A. & Sevil, K. S. (2008). “Public Spending in Russia for Healthcare: Issues and Options” Europe and Central Asia Region (ECA), , Russia Country Management Unit, The World Bank Annual Presentation Papers.
Pesaran, M. H., Shin, Y. and Smith, R. (2001). “Bounds Testing Approaches to the Analysis of Level Relationships”, Journal of Applied Econometrics (16), 289-326.
Rajkumar, A. S. & Vinaya, S. (2008). “Public spending and outcomes: Does governance matter?” Journal of Development Economics (86), 96-111.
Remman, H. B., Bassey, J. U. & Edu, B. E. (2011). Health care Expenditure in Nigeria: Does the level of Government speding really matter? SSRN : http: (SSM.com abstract=1554027.
Richardson, K. E., Innocent, A. I. & Okereke, O. S. (2015). Relationship between household income and child mortality in Nigeria. America Journal of life science. 2,(6), 1-12. ”.
Riman, H. B. (2012). Healthcare Financing and Health outcomes in Nigeria: A State Level Study using Multivariate Analysis. International Journal of Humanities and Social Science. 2(15), 296-305.
Schultz, T. P. (1993). “Mortality Decline in the Low-Income World: Causes and Consequences,”
Economic Growth Center Discussion Paper No. 681 (New Haven: Yale University).
Solow, R. M. (1956). “A Contribution to the Theory of Economics Growth”, Quarterly Journal of Economics: LXX.
Tae, K. K. & Shannon R. L. (2013). “Government Health Expenditure & Public Health Outcomes” A comparative study among 17 countries and implication for Health Care Reform. American Internation Journal of Contemporary Research. Vol (3).
UNDP (2013). “List of Countries by Human Development Index” United Nation Development Project. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_Human_Development_Index
UNECA (2012). “Economic Transformation for Africa’s Development”, United Nations, Economic Commission for Africa, Macroeconomic policy Division, C-10 Meeting April. Washington D, C. University Press: New York, NY.
World Health Organisation. (2005). World Development Report 2005: Investing in Health. Oxford University Press: New York, NY. WHO (2005), World Development Report 1993: Investing in Health. Oxford.
World Health Organization (2010). “Measuring Performance of Health Sector in Nigeria.” World Health Report. Geneva.
Yaqub, J., Ojapinwa T.V. (2012). Public Health Expenditure and Health Outcome In, Nigeria: The Impact Of Governance” European Scientific Journal 8(13), 189-201 eujournal.org/index.php/esj/article/viewFile/206/248
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2019-07-15
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